From malaria, to smallpox, to polio – here’s how we know life in ancient Egypt was ravaged by disease

This 18th dynasty panel depicts a polio sufferer. Wikimedia^[6]

Statues of the lion-headed goddess of disease and health, Sekhmet, also increased significantly^[7], suggesting a reliance on divine protection.

Another sign of a potential major disease outbreak comes in the form of what may be an early case of quarantine, wherein Amenhotep III moved his palace to the more isolated site of Malqata. This is further supported by the burning of a workers’ cemetery near Thebes.

Grave goods also became less extravagant and tombs less complex during this period, which suggests more burials were needed in a shorter time frame. These burials can’t be explained by war since this was an unusually peaceful period.

Did disease trigger early monotheism?

Amenohotep’s son – “the heretic King” Akhenaten (who was also Tutankhamun’s father) – abandoned the old gods of Egypt. In one of the earliest cases of monotheism, Akhenaten made worship of the Sun the official state religion.

This panel (circa 1372-1355 BC) shows Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their daughters adoring the Sun god Aten. Wikimedia^[8]

Some researchers think^[9] Akhenaten’s dramatic loss of faith may have been due to the devastating disease he witnessed during his childhood and into his reign, with several of his children and wives having died from disease. But we’ve yet to find clear evidence for the role of disease in shaping his theology.

There’s also no direct DNA evidence of an outbreak under his father, Amenhotep III. There are only descriptions of one in letters^[10] Amenhotep III and Akhenaten exchanged with the Babylonians.

These clay tablets (circa 14th century BC), inscribed in Babylonian cuneiform, were sent to Amenhotep III or Akhenaten from the ruler Abdi-tirshi of Hazor (modern-day Israel). British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA^[11]

To confirm an outbreak under Amenhotep III, we’d need to first recover pathogen DNA in human remains from this time, has been found in other Egyptian burial sites and for other pandemics^[12].

Also, while many ancient epidemics are referred to as “plagues”, we can’t confirm whether any outbreaks in ancient Egypt were indeed caused by Yersinia pestis, the bacteria responsible for bubonic plague pandemics such as the Black Death^[13] in Europe (1347-1351).

That said, researchers have confirmed^[14] the Nile rat, which was widespread during the time of the Pharaohs, would have been able to carry the Yersinia infection.

This 1811 etching depicts the ancient Plague of Athens (circa 430 BC), which may have been caused by Yersinia or a disease with similar symptoms such as smallpox, typhus or measles. The British Museum, CC BY-NC-SA^[15][16]

How were outbreaks managed?

Much like modern pandemics, factors such as population growth, sanitation, population density and mobilisation for war would have influenced the spread of disease in ancient Egypt.

In the case of war, it’s thought the Hittite army was weakened by^[17] disease spread when it was famously defeated by^[18] Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses the Great in the battle of Kadesh (1274 BC).

In some ways, Egyptian medicine was advanced for its time. While these outbreaks occurred long before the development of antibiotics or vaccines, there is some evidence of public health measures such as the burning of towns and quarantining people. This suggests a basic understanding of how disease spreads.

Diseases caused by microorganisms would have been viewed as supernatural, or as a corruption of the air^[19]. This is similar to other explanations held in different parts of the world, before germ theory was popularised in the 19th century.

New world, old problems

The funerary mask of Tutankhamun, who died as a teenager. Wikimedia, CC BY-SA^[20][21]

Many of the most widespread diseases that afflicted the ancient world are still with us.

Along with Tutankhamun, it’s thought up to 70%^[22] of the Egyptian population was infected with malaria caused by the Plasmodium falciparum parasite – spread by swarms of mosquitoes occupying the stagnant pools of the Nile delta.

Today, malaria affects about 250 million people, mostly in developing nations. Tuberculosis kills more than a million people each year. And smallpox and polio have only recently been eradicated or controlled through vaccination programs.

More work is yet to be done to detect individual pathogens in Egyptian mummies. This knowledge could shed light on how, throughout history, people much like us have grappled with these unseen organisms.

Read more: Did everyone in Bridgerton have syphilis? Just how sexy would it really have been in Regency era London?^[23]

Read more https://theconversation.com/from-malaria-to-smallpox-to-polio-heres-how-we-know-life-in-ancient-egypt-was-ravaged-by-disease-223970

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